Lumières is the French notion used for this movement. It comes from the word lumière (light) and means ‘intelligence, knowledge and a clear spirit’.
https://en.historylapse.org/influence-of-the-enlightenment-on-the-french-revolution
https://en.historylapse.org/influence-of-the-enlightenment-on-the-french-revolution
Immanuel Kant
In his essay "What Is Enlightenment?" (1784), the German philosopher Immanuel Kant summed up the era's motto in the following terms: "Dare to know! Have courage to use your own reason!"
Rene Descartes
Descartes posed one important question that we should remember, and one important concept. He was not necessarily the first to do so, but his questions are the ones we remember.
The concept: Radical Doubt. Start by doubting everything, even one's own existence and then look for logical proof in order to find truth.
This process led Descartes to the conclusion of "Cogito Ergo Sum" Which, in Latin, means "I think, therefore I am."
This was proof that even if everything we know is false, there has to be a thinker. If I am thinking then I exist.
The importance of "I think, therefor I am."
If I think, then I can reason. I can find truth. If we accept that I have this ability, then all others do as well. If we can all reason, then we all should be able to have control over our circumstances. Do we? No! The king has control over us. Why?
Divine Right of Kings: God said that he should rule. He is crowned by the pope, as a symbol of God's blessing. But in what other areas has the church been incorrect?
Disputes with the church in the enlightenment:
An English publicist who complained in 1713 that “…now religion in general is the question” and there were doubts “whether there ought to be any form of religion on earth, or whether there be any God in heaven.” Although “Christianity stood at the center of European culture”, as how it had for “more than a thousand years”, at that time there was a tendency among scientists and revolutionaries to refuse the traditional Christian beliefs. (Hause & Maltby, 2004, p. 374) For example, “Darwinism, the Copernican revolution and the Galileo affair are all too often regarded as demonstrating clearly and irrefutably that science and religion just do not mix.” (Henry, 2010, p. 39)
It should be noted that religion and science were not necessarily at war. It just seems that way historically.
Sir Isaac Newton, who was a deeply religious man, was one of the key figures in the scientific revolution; he had a great role in later success of the Royal Society, the president of which he also served as. Newton’s intention was “to make men more pious and devout” in “all his work” (Dolnick, 2011, p. 308) “Everything he did was influenced by God in some respect” (In Our Time: Newton’s Laws of Motion, 27:38). As how Newton himself emphasized in his Principia: “He is eternal and infinite, omnipotent and omniscient,” and “He governs all things and knows all things that are or can be done.”(Newton, 1687) Religious belief, ultimately, was not an obstacle for his scientific experiences. (thepoliticon)
The concept: Radical Doubt. Start by doubting everything, even one's own existence and then look for logical proof in order to find truth.
This process led Descartes to the conclusion of "Cogito Ergo Sum" Which, in Latin, means "I think, therefore I am."
This was proof that even if everything we know is false, there has to be a thinker. If I am thinking then I exist.
The importance of "I think, therefor I am."
If I think, then I can reason. I can find truth. If we accept that I have this ability, then all others do as well. If we can all reason, then we all should be able to have control over our circumstances. Do we? No! The king has control over us. Why?
Divine Right of Kings: God said that he should rule. He is crowned by the pope, as a symbol of God's blessing. But in what other areas has the church been incorrect?
Disputes with the church in the enlightenment:
An English publicist who complained in 1713 that “…now religion in general is the question” and there were doubts “whether there ought to be any form of religion on earth, or whether there be any God in heaven.” Although “Christianity stood at the center of European culture”, as how it had for “more than a thousand years”, at that time there was a tendency among scientists and revolutionaries to refuse the traditional Christian beliefs. (Hause & Maltby, 2004, p. 374) For example, “Darwinism, the Copernican revolution and the Galileo affair are all too often regarded as demonstrating clearly and irrefutably that science and religion just do not mix.” (Henry, 2010, p. 39)
It should be noted that religion and science were not necessarily at war. It just seems that way historically.
Sir Isaac Newton, who was a deeply religious man, was one of the key figures in the scientific revolution; he had a great role in later success of the Royal Society, the president of which he also served as. Newton’s intention was “to make men more pious and devout” in “all his work” (Dolnick, 2011, p. 308) “Everything he did was influenced by God in some respect” (In Our Time: Newton’s Laws of Motion, 27:38). As how Newton himself emphasized in his Principia: “He is eternal and infinite, omnipotent and omniscient,” and “He governs all things and knows all things that are or can be done.”(Newton, 1687) Religious belief, ultimately, was not an obstacle for his scientific experiences. (thepoliticon)
Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes (1588-–1679) saw people as naturally cruel, greedy and selfish. Hobbes believed in a social contract in which people give power to the government in return for an organized society. In his model, government needed to be powerful to ensure order.
"The condition of man... is a condition of war of everyone against everyone"
"It is not wisdom but Authority that makes a law."
"I put for the general inclination of all mankind, a perpetual and restless desire of power after power, that ceaseth only in death."
""Government is necessary, not because man is naturally bad... but because man is by nature more individualistic than social."
"Life in the state of nature is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." ~ Thomas Hobbes
"The condition of man... is a condition of war of everyone against everyone"
"It is not wisdom but Authority that makes a law."
"I put for the general inclination of all mankind, a perpetual and restless desire of power after power, that ceaseth only in death."
""Government is necessary, not because man is naturally bad... but because man is by nature more individualistic than social."
"Life in the state of nature is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." ~ Thomas Hobbes
Locke
John Locke (1632-–1704) believed that people were basically reasonable and therefore had natural rights—life, liberty and property—and that government existed to protect these rights. Locke proposed that government also had a responsibility to its citizens and could be overthrown if it violated the rights of its citizens.
Locke argued that human nature was mutable and that knowledge was gained through accumulated experience rather than by accessing some sort of outside truth.
"All men by nature are equal in that equal right that every man hath to his natural freedom, without being subjected to the will or authority of any other man; being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty or possessions." ~ John Locke
"I have no reason to suppose that he, who would take away my Liberty, would not when he had me in his Power, take away everything else." ~ John Locke
"Who lies for you will lie against you." ~ John Locke
"Any single man must judge for himself whether circumstances warrant obedience or resistance to the commands of the civil magistrate; we are all qualified, entitled, and morally obliged to evaluate the conduct of our rulers. This political judgment, moreover, is not simply or primarily a right, but like self-preservation, a duty to God. As such it is a judgment that men cannot part with according to the God of Nature. It is the first and foremost of our inalienable rights without which we can preserve no other." ~ John Locke
"The most precious of all possessions is power over ourselves." ~ John Locke
Locke argued that human nature was mutable and that knowledge was gained through accumulated experience rather than by accessing some sort of outside truth.
"All men by nature are equal in that equal right that every man hath to his natural freedom, without being subjected to the will or authority of any other man; being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty or possessions." ~ John Locke
"I have no reason to suppose that he, who would take away my Liberty, would not when he had me in his Power, take away everything else." ~ John Locke
"Who lies for you will lie against you." ~ John Locke
"Any single man must judge for himself whether circumstances warrant obedience or resistance to the commands of the civil magistrate; we are all qualified, entitled, and morally obliged to evaluate the conduct of our rulers. This political judgment, moreover, is not simply or primarily a right, but like self-preservation, a duty to God. As such it is a judgment that men cannot part with according to the God of Nature. It is the first and foremost of our inalienable rights without which we can preserve no other." ~ John Locke
"The most precious of all possessions is power over ourselves." ~ John Locke
Baron de Montesquieu
Montesquieu (1689–-1755) studied governments and how they worked (or did not work). He believed that a government needed three branches (legislative, executive and judicial). The various functions and powers of the government should be divided between all three (separation of powers) and each branch should serve as a check on the other two (checks and balances). To see a nation based on Montesquieu's ideas, look at our own Canadian government!
"When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body of magistrates, there can be no liberty; because apprehensions may arise, lest the same monarch or senate should enact tyrannical laws, to execute them in a tyrannical manner." ~ Baron de Montesquieu
"It is necessary from the very nature of things that power should be a check to power." ~ Baron de Montesquieu
"To become truly great, one has to stand with people, not above them." ~ Baron de Montesquieu
"When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body of magistrates, there can be no liberty; because apprehensions may arise, lest the same monarch or senate should enact tyrannical laws, to execute them in a tyrannical manner." ~ Baron de Montesquieu
"It is necessary from the very nature of things that power should be a check to power." ~ Baron de Montesquieu
"To become truly great, one has to stand with people, not above them." ~ Baron de Montesquieu
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Rousseau (1712-–1778) believed that people were naturally good, but that they were corrupted by the evils of society, especially the unequal distribution of property. He also proposed a social contract in which a freely elected government would place some, but minimal, control over people. He believed people should follow the "general will" for true liberty and look at the good of the community over individual interests.
"People in their natural state are basically good. But this natural innocence,however, is corrupted by the evils of society." ~ Jean-Jacques Rousseau
"There are always four sides to a story: your side, their side, the truth and what really happened." ~ Jean-Jacques Rousseau
"I prefer liberty with danger than peace with slavery." ~ Jean-Jacques Rousseau
"The freedom of Mankind does not lie in the fact that can do what we want, but that we do not have to do that which we do not want." ~ Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Voltaire
Voltaire (1694–-1778)—the most famous of the Enlightenment Philosophers—battled corruption, injustice and inequality and defended freedom of speech. His outspoken nature offended both the French government and the Catholic Church—the two traditional powers of France.
"If you want to know who controls you, look at who you are not allowed to criticize." ~ Voltaire
"In general, the art of government consists of taking as much money as possible from one class of citizens to give to another." ~ Voltaire
"The more often a stupidity is repeated, the more it gets the appearance of wisdom." ~ Voltaire
"So long as the people do not care to exercise their freedom, those who wish to tyrannize will do so; for tyrants are active and ardent, and will devote themselves in the name of any number of gods, religious and otherwise, to put shackles upon sleeping men." ~ Voltaire
"It is difficult to free fools from the chains they revere." ~ Voltaire
"The mirror is a worthless invention. The only way to truly see yourself is in the reflection of someone else's eyes." ~ Voltaire
"The most important decision you make is to be in a good mood." ~ Voltaire
"It is dangerous to be right in matters where established men are wrong." ~ Voltaire
"Everything you say should be true, but not everything true should be said." ~ Voltaire
"The only way to comprehend what mathematicians mean by Infinity is to contemplate the extent of human stupidity." ~ Voltaire
"Many are destined to reason wrongly; others, not to reason at all; and others, to persecute those who do reason." ~ Voltaire
"Beware of the words "internal security," for they are the eternal cry of the oppressor." ~ Voltaire
"Anyone who has the power to make you believe absurdities has the power to make you commit injustices." ~ Voltaire
"If you want to know who controls you, look at who you are not allowed to criticize." ~ Voltaire
"In general, the art of government consists of taking as much money as possible from one class of citizens to give to another." ~ Voltaire
"The more often a stupidity is repeated, the more it gets the appearance of wisdom." ~ Voltaire
"So long as the people do not care to exercise their freedom, those who wish to tyrannize will do so; for tyrants are active and ardent, and will devote themselves in the name of any number of gods, religious and otherwise, to put shackles upon sleeping men." ~ Voltaire
"It is difficult to free fools from the chains they revere." ~ Voltaire
"The mirror is a worthless invention. The only way to truly see yourself is in the reflection of someone else's eyes." ~ Voltaire
"The most important decision you make is to be in a good mood." ~ Voltaire
"It is dangerous to be right in matters where established men are wrong." ~ Voltaire
"Everything you say should be true, but not everything true should be said." ~ Voltaire
"The only way to comprehend what mathematicians mean by Infinity is to contemplate the extent of human stupidity." ~ Voltaire
"Many are destined to reason wrongly; others, not to reason at all; and others, to persecute those who do reason." ~ Voltaire
"Beware of the words "internal security," for they are the eternal cry of the oppressor." ~ Voltaire
"Anyone who has the power to make you believe absurdities has the power to make you commit injustices." ~ Voltaire
Rights and Revolution
Before the French Revolution, political power in Europe was based on the belief that monarchs ruled by divine right: by the power given them by God. With the encouragement of les philosophes, people began to realize that the right of the monarch to govern came not so much from God, but from the people themselves.
This growing recognition of their rights caused the people of France to seek government reform, and to question the way things had always been done.
This growing recognition of their rights caused the people of France to seek government reform, and to question the way things had always been done.
Responsibility from Rights
\ Enlightenment Philosophers also cautioned that some restriction of rights was necessary to maintain social order. They believed that government must hold at least a minimal amount of control.
This meant that if people wanted the power to choose their leaders. And if they wanted rights, then they also had responsibilities.
Discussion Questions
This meant that if people wanted the power to choose their leaders. And if they wanted rights, then they also had responsibilities.
Discussion Questions
- How do the rights that the Enlightenment Philosophers promoted, affect life within your school environment? Give some examples.
- How do students' expectations of rights—or the rights that they focus on—differ from those of citizens at the time of the French Revolution? Give examples. Why might they differ?
- How do the rights of individual students compare with the rights of the school to maintain a safe environment?
- How should rights change in your school? Why? For example, are student rights respected or ignored by locker searches, restrictions on cell phone use, security cameras, dress codes, nutrition policies or random searches by narcotics dogs? Why or why not? What expectation of privacy should exist in public schools?